STRATEGIES FOR INVOLVING RURAL FARMERS IN AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERISTY CONSERVATION IN AKWA IBOM STATE Click to DOWNLOAD Materials
Abstract
Akwa Ibom States is located in the rainforest belt of Nigeria known for preponderance of agricultural biodiversity. Agricultural biodiversity or agrobiodiversity is succinctly referred, is the diversity of agrogenetic resources used directly for food and agriculture; the diversity of species that support production and the diversity of species that support agroecosystem, as well as diversity agroecosystems themselves. It performs many closely interrelated socioeconomic and environmental functions, including promoting food and livelihood security, maintaining productive and environmental sustainability; and contributing to resilient rural economics. Because of these enormous potentials, and farmers have been making frantic efforts at conserving this vital resource. However, despite these efforts, agrobiodiversity is being lost at an alarming rate. This study was designed to determine the measures for enhancing the involvement of rural farmers in agricultural biodiversity conservation In Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The findings of the study revealed that some of the key measures for involving rural farmers in agricultural biodiversity conservation In Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria include the application of incentive system in the management of agricultural resources, non-imposition of fines on agro based produce/products and the provision of adequate marketing outlets in the rural areas for agro-based produce among others. Finally, it was concluded that to enhance agrobiodiversity conservation, programmes of agrobiodiversity conservation in the state should involve the rural communities who are the major actors in the development of agroresources and its conservation principles.
STRATEGIES FOR INVOLVING RURAL FARMERS IN AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN AKWA IBOM STATE, NIGERIA
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
The conservation of biodiversity is one aspect of environment, which has recently received global attention. Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur (Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID), 2002. It is a term used to describe the degree of nature’s variety including both the number and frequency of ecosystems, species or genes in a given assemblage. It is essentially synonymous with life on the earth. It is usually considered at three different levels: genetic diversity, specie diversity and ecosystem diversity. Genetic diversity is the sum total of genetic characteristics of individual plants, animals and other living organisms inhabiting the earth. Such characteristics may include rapid growth, high yields, diseases and pests resistance, and environmental adaptation. Specie diversity refers to the variety of living organisms on earth, while ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of habitats, biotic communities and ecological processes in the biosphere as well as the tremendous diversity within ecosystems in terms of habitat differences and the variety of ecological processes.
The concept of agricultural biodiversity or agrobiodiversity as it is sometimes referred could be identified within a macro concept of biodiversity. Agricultural biodiversity is restricted to plants and animals used in commerce or having potential use (Srivastava, Smith and Ferno, 2001). It is the diversity of genetic resources (varieties, breeds, species, cultivated, reared or wild) used directly for food and agriculture; the diversity of species that support production (soil biota, pollinators, predators, etc.) and those in the wider environment that support agroecosystems (agricultural, pastoral. forest and aquatic), as well as the diversity of agroecosystems themselves (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008) .Agroecosystems are those ecosystems that are used for agriculture, and comprise polycultures, monocultures and mixed systems including crop-livestock systems (rice-fish), agroforestry agrosilvo pastoral systems, aquaculture as well as rangelands, pastures and fallow lands (Pimbert, 2009).
Agricultural biodiversity is of immense benefit to humanity. Man depends on various livestock and crop species for food, fuel, fibre, medicine, drugs and raw materials for a host of manufacturing technologies and purposes. The productivity of agricultural system is as a result of a continuous alteration of once wild plant and animal germplasms. Also genetic engineering especially in. the pharmaceutical and food processing industries uses agro-genetic resources from sources worldwide.
Besides these direct values, agricultural biodiversities arc important parts of the processes that regulate the earth’s atmospheric, climatic, hydrologic and biochemical cycles. It provides local ecological services including the protection of watersheds, cycling of nutrients, combating erosion, enriching soil, regulating water flow, trapping sediments, mitigating erosion and controlling pest population (Ehrenfeld, 2000)
Furthermore, agrobiodiversity holds ethical and aesthetical values and also forms the basis for sustainable rural development and resource management. In most rural areas of Akwa Ibom State, the diversity of local plants and animals is being harnessed for sustainable economic development. Locally adapted traditional animal breeds (sheep, goats, cattle), crop varieties (fruit trees, fodder plants and cereals) and wild fruits are being explored to generate local products jobs, income and environmental care .
Inspite of the enormous potentialities of agrobiodiversity in retaining plants, animals, soils, and water as well as serving as the foundation of sustainable development, most of the environmental discussions in this regard draw attention to its being increasingly subjected to devastation and loss. The loss of agrobiodiversity is a relative phenomenon. Blaide and Broodfield (2007) maintained that agrobiodiversity is lost when it suffers a reduction in intrinsic qualities or a decline in its capabilities or complete extinction resulting from ‘a causative factor or a combination of factors which reduce its physical, chemical or biological status hence restricting its productive capacity. It also involves a loss of utility or potential utility or the reduction or change of features or extinction of agro species which could not be replaced (Dumsday, 2007).
Akwa Ibom State occupies one of the geographical zones located in the rainforest belt – an area known for high density of agro-genetic diversity. Throughout its ecological zones, the diversity of agroecosystem is being rapidly eroded. This erosion may be primarily due to intensive resource exploitation and extensive alteration of habitats. Other associated factors include: the neglect of indigenous knowledge of agrobiodiversity conservation institutions and management systems; the blueprint approach to development whereby monoculture systems and uniform technologies are promoted; the quest for the transnational corporations that market agricultural inputs and process food and fibres for commercial profits and uncontrolled over-production; inequitable access to and control over land, water, trees and genetic resources on he part of local people; market pressures and the under-valuation of agricultural biodiversity; demographic factors and oil spillage.
It is acclaimed fact that rural farmers often have profound and detailed knowledge of agro-species and the related ecosystem’s with which they come in contact and have developed effective ways of ensuring they are used sustainably (McNeely, Miller, Reid, Mittermeier, & Werner, 2000). However, they are constrained by a number of problems in their attempt to adopt conservation systems that sustain its own capital – agricultural resources of plant and animal sources. According to FAO (2009), the factor which causes a gap between the desired and actual farmer behaviour in conservation border on knowledge, motivation and technology, type of incentives and disincentives, land use, population growth and poverty among others.
On insufficient value being given to agro-resources in the national and private development objectives, McNeely et al pointed out that maintaining a nation’s agro-agricultural diversity is integral to maintaining its agricultural wealth, but the importance of species and ecosystem is seldom sufficiently considered in the formulation of national development policies. Rural farmers do not consciously consider the value of species and ecosystems in their farm practices. Development tends to emphasize short-term exploitation to earn income or foreign exchange rather than long-term sustainable utilization of agricultural resources. Farmers focused on their expressed immediate needs and tend to seek relatively short-term returns on their investments. Uncontrolled use of agricultural resources by farmers contributes to specie extinction and loss of agricultural biodiversity. McNeely et al also pointed out that most conservation efforts made by the farmers have addressed a small species such as ruminants, monogastrics, poultry, major species of plants or certain tree species. Farmers lack ability conserve if the conservation efforts are poorly paid. Besides, those responsible for creating awareness opportunities for advancement, lack specialized training and have low prestige, lack sufficient equipment and managerial capacity. These ultimately affect the conservation efforts of the rural farmers.
Shepherd (2002) blames the poor conservation disposition of the rural farmers on tenure and land use changes. He noted that one of the facts which emerge of recent in the conservation circle is the tremendous paucity of formal forester knowledge about the conservation of forest-based agro-resources. Set against this knowledge, one finds the imposition of European concept of property and land tenure, with disastrous effect. The most important gap was the failure to understand the Swidden fallowing system which had used the landscape sustainably for some years now. swidden fallowing is coming to an end and more marginal lands are farmed with accompanying destruction of bush areas. Each household head now tries to spread his bets by sowing over as wide and varied an area as possible with the result that conservation practices such as manuring, intensive sowing and weeding, planned fallowing and water conservation, have been replaced by quick easy farming (Thompson, Feeny, and Oakerson, 2006).
Indirectly related to this is the land use changes relating to economic change and the loss of authority of elders in the traditional farming community. Thompson el al (2006) noted that the introduction of plantation crops such as oil palm, cocoa and rubber as major economic crops has a negative effect on other many areas with attendant loss of agro-ecosystem and agrobiodiversity. He also said that in some local communities the authorities of the clan elders who were originally solely responsible for livestock and agro-resource management, is being eroded by modern education for the young and the promulgation of Land Use Acts by the government. Pointing out the effect of this on conservation effort, he said that, the weakened position of the elders makes the conservation of agro-resources through the institution of sacred groves no longer tenable.
Another factor which has tremendous adverse influence on the ability of the rural farmer’s conservation is unattended population growth. Nigerian Environmental Study/Action Team (NEST), (2001) rightly argued that a finite world can support only a finite population. Under a given socio-economic system and technology, there is an upper limit to the number of people which land area can support. As long as the number of people is below this critical value their demand for agricultural land, grazing land and food at least in theory can be met without the environment being degraded or destroyed by population pressure, However, if the critical population density is exceeded, these human demands translate into excessive pressure on the land and agro-resource, The partnership between population and the environment becomes endangered and may break down as problems of deforestation and loss of agrobiodiversity Once the population sinks into a miserable state, what was once a harmonious and happy partnership between people and environment can easily become a vicious cycle in which environmental degradation makes people desperately poor. Poverty forces people to over-exploit the available agro-resources with disregard to conservation.
Population pressure seems to have led to the shortening of fallow periods under the shifting cultivation, In its traditional form, shifting cultivation is known for a rich source of crop diversity (BOSTID, 2002) In Nigeria, the whole cycle has less than halved in length and the fallow period is less than a third of what it was (NEST, 2002). The tendency is for the fallowing system to shrink in the end to the point where it is replaced by, crop rotation and monocropping. In these systems conservation practices are often replaced by quick easy farming (Thompson, Fenny, & Oakerson , 2006).
One of the constraints to the conservation of agrobiodiversity by rural farmers is lack of education. Nigeian Conservation Foundation (NCF), (2005) pointed out that tackling environmental problems (loss of agrobiodiversity inclusive), requires action mostly from environmental education, Noibi (2002) noted that a person’s level of ignorance of the environment can be said to be positively related to the degree of damage to the environment. He exemplified this by relating a case of farmers who over-graze their land or substitute chemical fertilizer for organic manure and pesticides for biological means of pest control without bothering about the implications of that action on land and agrobiodiversity, It could therefore, be inferred that lack of environmental education among the farmers is the single greatest contributor that constraints the conservation of agricultural biodiversity by rural farmers. Education can impart knowledge and determination necessary to resolve a given set of environmental problems
. The social and perceptual factors also influence the conservation attitude of the rural farmers. According to Kellert (2008), the development of compelling rational and effective strategy for protecting endangered agro-species will require an increasing recognition that most contemporary extinction problems are largely the result of socio-economic and political forces. Norton (2008) pointed out that only a small minority of people possess much concern or empathy for the plight of endangered agro-species. Kellen (2008) while reflecting this view noted “the study of vanishing biodiversity is necessarily the study of man’s perception of animals and plants. What we fear, what we hope and what we admire in animals/plants will inevitably determine their fate. Agro-species are there but most of them figure as villain in our myths”.
As Norton intimates, agro-species are viewed somewhat more positively when they possess some aesthetic and utilitarian values. Human benefit factors include animal capacity to provide food, clothing, recreation and companionship. Ecological factors include species rarity and its contribution to diversity and ecological balance. Important psychological factors include the animal’s species aesthetic characteristics, spiritual and religious associations, habituating capacity and behavioural plasticity. These factors and values outline the perceptual categories rural farmers typically employ in deciding which species are worthy of preservation.
Another factor affecting conservation by rural farmers borders on the conservation policies operating in the country. NEST (2008) pointed out that one of the biggest bio-resources management problem is the absence of well coordinated rational policies and legislation operating in the country, but such policies have often been implemented without really considering local socio-economic issues. Also conservation policies tend to be largely “western” in outlook and having been designed and possibly managed by government officials can be poorly adapted to meet vital local needs (Barrow, 2008) He pointed out that conservation can involve a range of different interests such as central government, state/local government, local farmers, and conservation group/development staff and there may be conflict of interest between them. He concluded that developing conservation policies without taking the needs and demands of these different group’s will tend to end in difficulty.
Constraints to the conservation of agrobiodiversity by rural farmers are also associated with culture and religious beliefs. NEST submits that because of the closer relationship between culture and the environment, any campaign for environmental awareness and conservation must take on a new cultural time, calling for new ways of life and a new orientation. During pre-colonial times, religious beliefs and practices played important roles in the conservation especially agrobiodiversity. Sacred grooves and sacred animals were not exploited by people and so they remained in their pristine state. However, with the institution of colonial government and the spread of western values and culture, our traditional methods of conservation gradually disappeared and sacred forests became hunting ground (NEST, 2001).
On the adverse effects of religious influence on traditional conservation practices, various traditional farmers have developed over the centuries effective method of using the environment sustainably. These included the setting aside of land for religious and other purposes. Such land served as community forest estates protected by local law and custom and serving the spiritual or material needs of the people or both forestlands also were regularly set aside for various purposes: as hunting forests religious grooves, and isolation or quarantine forest. NEST observes that the coming of Islam and Christianity and of modernity in general has eroded adherence to traditional religion.
Inappropriate agriculture is also blamed as one of the factors inhibiting the conservation of agricultural biodiversity by rural farmers. Jackson (1983) commenting on the problems of conservation in Nigeria, cited bush fire as one of He said that in most farming communities in the tropics, the vegetation is usually set on fire annually. He pointed out that although burning is, often carried out to provide an early- flush of palatable tender grasses for livestock fires often penetrate into and burn up protected areas. Present studies also indicate that fire often results in the destruction of wild crop Iandraces and wildlife the custodian of genetic resources of importance. Besides, repeated burning usually results in decreasing growth of perennial vegetation. Barrow in a related comment pointed out that there has been a tendency of western attitude and technology to replace established, often successful local farmers’ agricultural practices, sometimes with catastrophic results and effects on conservation. A further complication is that farming has tended to become more dependent upon chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides. On the effect of this practice on conservation, Soule et al (2002) noted that the most critical problems associated agricultural pesticide use are those affecting toe fields crops themselves. These ultimately affect conservation. Some works also indicate that even nitrogenous fertilizer have all been blamed for causing stress action that increases the level of free amino acids and sugars in plant cells. This condition makes plants more appetizing to herbivores and can lead to higher herbivory levels. This is a threat to conservation. Soule also claims that herbicides have been found to intensify pest problem and hence affect agrobiodiversity of plant source. He explained that when herbicide applied before the crop comes up successfully removes all the weeds, it removes all alternative foods for the resident herbivores. In some cases this heightens the vulnerability of tender, newly emerging crop seedlings. This problem is of greatest concern when the herbivores have generalist-feeding habits – in other words they feed on a variety of plant speciesMost conservation programmes aimed at enhancing the conservation often fail because of lack of involvement of local farming population in the planning, execution and managing of conservation programmes. NEST (2001) pointed out that rural farmers are often marginalized in the day to day issues. Concerning conservation the local farmers are not made benefit from the conservation proceeds.
FAO (2001) commenting on common constraints to the farmers’ involvement in conservation pointed out that rural farmers tend to work together and contribute strength in conservation mostly when the benefits are immediate. NCF (2005) added that the failure of experts to consult local opinions (farmers) has sometimes resulted in expensive methods holding sway where knowledge and experience are .already available and passed on through oral tradition was not properly taken into reckoning.
Poverty is argued the single most influential factor inhibiting the conservation of agrobiodiversity. Poverty refers to a situation and process of serious deprivation or lack of resources and materials necessary for living within a minimum standard conducive 10 human dignity and well being. NEST (2001) opines that poverty is a major cause as well as a result of environmental degradation. In drawing analogy between poverty and environmental degradation, NEST (page 61) noted that poverty is the single most appropriate word with which to describe the local farmers in Nigeria today. As the World Commission on Environment and Development states “Poverty creates environmental stress in a different way. Those who are poor and hungry will often destroy their immediate environment to survive. They will cut down forests; their livestock will overgraze pasture, they will over-use marginal land; and in growing numbers they crowd into congested cities.
The poor attitude of rural farmers towards conservation is also blamed on modernization. Associated with modernization is the on-going increase in monoculture at the expense of polyculture-style agriculture. Soule et al (2002) noted that one of the dominant themes of modern agricultural development has been the reduction in diversity. This is seen in crop and livestock breeding where local farmers are encouraged to patronize genetically narrow varieties and ‘breeds that now dominate agriculture at the replacement of a multitude of locally adapted strains. Shiva (2001) added that in traditional agriculture and forestry system; biodiversity regenerates itself, it is both means of production and product thus seed has been the source of grain as well as future source of seed. Industrialized agriculture and the seed industry especially, with the advent of modern biotechnologies, convert this seed into mere raw materials for seed as commodity patented and privatized. Drake (2009) noted that importation of exotic breeds is one of the reasons for the disappearance of local breeds found among local farmers.
Another factor which impacts conservation among rural farmers borders on what FAO (2009) refers to as a type of disincentives. These include fines, withholding of supplies/materials, punishment/pressures from the community, withholding of land use rights, withholding of services, closing of market outlets and impounding of agricultural products. Many farmers lack the resources to address properly the conservation problems with which they are confronted.
The conservation of agrobiodiversity by rural farmers is also threatened by natural phenomena a factor which farmers do not claim control. According to Ashton (2008), the gravest threat to biodiversity or at least the straw that breaks the camel’s back, is climate change brought about by air pollution and the increase .in atmospheric carbon dioxide due to deforestation and burning fossil fuels. (International union for the conservation of Nature (IUCN), 2002) has shown that increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration alters the growth rate and reproductive potentials of crop plants and ultimately affect interaction at community level and beyond and that rapid climatic change may have contributed to major extinction event in the earth’s history
Barrow (2008) also associates the problem of conserving agrobiodiversity to waterlogging when drainage is impeded leading to saturation, that is, soil interstitial spaces are water-filled. Some crops and livestock species are adapted to waterlogged soils, some are not. Barrow explains that if water logging of a soil occurs gradually, plants and animals may adapt or new species have time to colonize. If the waterlogging is relatively sudden, there may follow a period when existing organisms die or move away and new, adapted species have colonized.
To address these multifaceted issues need therefore arises for conscious determination of the strategies for enhancing the involvement of rural farmers in agrobiodiversity conservation in the State.
1.2 Research Question
- To examine the impact of rural farmers in agricultural biodiversity in Akwa Ibom State
- To evaluate the benefit of agricultural biodiversity conservation in Akwa Ibom State
- To determine the extent of use agricultural biodiversity conservation by farmers in Akwa Ibom State
1.3 Statement of Problem
Poverty is argued the single most influential factor inhibiting the conservation of agrobiodiversity in Akwa Ibom State. Poverty refers to a situation and process of serious deprivation or lack of resources and materials necessary for living within a minimum standard conducive human dignity and well being. The issue of poverty has limited the level of agricultural biodiversity participation by rural farmers in Nigeria including Akwa Ibom State. Poverty has limited rural participation of farmersin conservation of agrobidiversity in Akwa Ibom State as the cost of involvement in this venture is very expensive and demanding. Also, the poor attitude of rural farmers towards conservation is also blamed on modernization. Associated with modernization is the on-going increase in monoculture at the expense of polyculture-style agriculture. One of the dominant themes of modern agricultural development has been the reduction in diversity. This is seen in crop and livestock breeding where local farmers are encouraged to patronize genetically narrow varieties and ‘breeds that now dominate agriculture at the replacement of a multitude of locally adapted strains.
Another factor which impacts conservation among rural farmers is lack of conservation incentives. These include fines, withholding of supplies/materials, punishment/pressures from the community, withholding of land use rights, withholding of services, closing of market outlets and impounding of agricultural products. Many farmers lack the resources to address properly the conservation problems with which they are confronted.
The greatest threat to biodiversity is harmful human activities such as air pollution , deforestation and burning fossil fuels. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration alters the growth rate and reproductive potentials of crop plants and ultimately affect interaction at community level and beyond and that rapid climatic change may have contributed to major extinction event in the earth’s history. associates the problem of conserving agrobiodiversity to waterlogging when drainage is impeded leading to saturation, that is, soil interstitial spaces are water-filled. Some crops and livestock species are adapted to waterlogged soils, some are not. Barrow explains that if water logging of a soil occurs gradually, plants and animals may adapt or new species have time to colonize.
1.4 Limitations of the Study
There is a problem of disclosure of information between farmers and agricultural experts and extentionist who are willing to assist rural farmers in achieving agricultural biodiversity conservation in Nigeria. Communication necessary for running and effective agricultural biodiversity system is almost non existent in the State. Also, lack of quality biodiversity equipment for proper agrodiversity conservation is also lacking mostly as a result of government negligence in terms of funding .
1.5 Scope of the study
The area of the study is Akwa Ibom State. Akwa Ibom State is one of the states in Nigeria. It is situated in the Niger Delta environmental setting known for preponderance of agrobiodiversity. It is divided into three agricultural zones – Eket, Ikot Ekpene and Uyo based on her ecological characteristics. Eket zone is identified with fresh water and mangrove swamp forest ecological structure. It is located along coastal creeks, estuaries and lagoons. It is dominated with varieties of vegetations such as tall trees with prop roots which yield timber and pulps. The thick forest also serves as habitat for wildlife. The location of Akwa Ibom just north of the equator and within the humid tropics and its proximity to the sea makes the state generally humid. On the basis of its geographical location, the climate of Akwa Ibom State can be described as a tropical rainy type which experiences abundant rainfall with very high temperature.The state experiences two main seasons, the wet and the dry seasons. The wet or rainy season lasts between eight to nine months starting from mid- march till the end of November. The dry season has a short duration of between the last week of November or early December and lasts till early march.
1.6 Definition of Terms
Biodiversity– the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur.
Agrobiodiversity – the diversity of agrogenetic resources used directly for food and agriculture; the diversity of species that support production and the diversity of species that support agroecosystem, as well as diversity agroecosystems themselves.
Agroecosystems– those ecosystems that are used for agriculture, and comprise polycultures, monocultures and mixed systems including crop-livestock systems (rice-fish), agroforestry agrosilvo- pastoral systems, aquaculture as well as rangelands, pastures and fallow lands.
Conservation -the preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization, restoration and enhancement of all species, breeds and strains of livestock and varieties of crop plants especially those of economic, scientific and cultural interests to mankind agriculture either at present or in future.
Rural farmers -constitute a group and the bulk of indigenous farmers found in the rural community; the descendants or inhabitants of area prior to its colonization.
STRATEGIES FOR INVOLVING RURAL FARMERS IN AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERISTY CONSERVATION IN AKWA IBOM STATE